语言学教案Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

2.1 Speech production and perception 2.2 Speech organs

2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription 2.3.1 Segments and divergences 2.3.2 Phonetic transcription 2.4 Consonants

2.4.1 Consonants and vowels 2.4.2 Consonants

2.4.3 Manners of articulation 2.4.4 Places of articulation

2.4.5 The consonants of English 2.5 Vowels

2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description 2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels 2.5.3 Vowel glides

2.5.4 The vowels of RP

2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 2.6.1 Coarticulation

2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions 2.7 Phonological analysis 2.8 Phonemes and allophones 2.8.1 Minimal pairs

2.8.2 The phoneme theory 2.8.3 Allophones

2.9 Phonological processes 2.9.1 Assimilation

2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules 2.9.3 Rule ordering

2.10 Distinctive features 2.11 Syllables

2.11.1 The syllable structure 2.11.2 Sonority scale

2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal onset principle 2.12 Stress

2.1 Speech production and perception

Language is first and foremost a “system of vocal symbols”. Sound is prior to writing.

Phonetics: the study of sounds

Phonology: the study of sound patterns.

Speech Speech Production Perception (Speaker A) (Speech B)

 ARTICULATORY PHONETICS: the study of the production of speech sounds

 ACOUSTIC PHNETICS: the study of physical properties of sounds produced in speech  AUDITORY PHONETIC: the study of perception of speech sounds

2.2 Speech organs

SPEECH ORGANS (or VOCAL ORGANS): parts of the human body involved in the

production of speech Lung

Trachea(or windpipe) Throat: pharynx, larynx Nose

Mouth: tongue, parts of palate VOCAL TRACT

AIRSTREAM: source of energy Pulmonic & Non-pulmonic

LARYNX

Vocal folds, and ventricular folds Positions of vocal folds  Apart: [p, s, t]

 Close together: [b, z, d]  Totally together: glottal stop PHARYNX MOUTH

Upper lip, upper teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula Lower lip, lower teeth, tongue, mandible(lower jaw 下腭) TONGUE:

tip, blade, front, back, root

2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription 2.3.1 Segments and divergences SEGMENT

E.g. above (“e” is silent)

QUESTION: Why divergence between sound and symbol?

2.3.2 Phonetic transcription

Questions: Why do we need phonetic transcription? International Phonetic Alphabet

2.4 Consonants

2.4.1 Consonants and vowels

CONSONATNS are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,

impede, or completely shut off the flow or air in the oral cavity.

VOWELS are produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air

can be perceived.

SEMI-VOWEL/SEMI-CONSONATNT

2.4.2 Consonants

NOTE: In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. E.g. bad (a) MANNERS OF ARTICULATION

(b) PLACES OF ARTICULATION

2.4.3 Manners of articulation (1) STOP/POSITIVE

NASAL STOP (or NASAL): [m, n, ] ORAL STOP (or STOP): e.g. [p, b, t, d]

(2) FRICATIVE: [f, v, h]

(3) (MEDIAN) APPROXIMANT

(4) LATERAL (APPROXIMANT): [l]

(5) Others

TRILL (or ROLL) TAP(or FLAP) AFFRICATIVE

E.g. “ch-” in “church”

2.4.4 Places of articulation (1) BILABIAL

(2) LABIODENTAL

(3) DENTAL: made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth, e.g. [, ]. (Only fricative are strict dental) INTERDENTAL

(4) ALVEOLAR: made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge (5) POSTALVEOLAR

(6) RETROFLEX: “r” of red. (7) PALATAL

(8) VERLAR: [k, g] in cat and get

(9) UVULAR: rural Northern accent, “r” in try (10) PHARYNGEAL (11) GLOTTAL

2.4.5 The consonants of English

Received pronunciation (RP) (or BBC English, Oxford English) [p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop

[s] voiceless alveolar fricative

2.5 Vowels

2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description C.f. Vowels vs. consonants

Obstruction of airstream

Criteria of vowels:

 The part of the tongue that is raised — front, center, or back

 The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate — high, mid (mid-high and

mid-low), low

 The kind of opening made at the lips — various degrees of lip rounding or spreading

 The position of the soft palate — raised for oral vowels, and lowered for nasalized vowels

2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels Cardinal vowels (基本元音) 1844 A. J. Ellis

1867 A. M. Bell, Visible Speech

1917 Daniel Jones, Outline of English Phonetics (1962) CARDIANL VOWELS Cardinal vowel diagram

SCHWA (中性元音): the tongue position for the neutral vowel [ә] is neither high nor low and

neither front nor back

2.5.3 Vowel glides

PURE VOWELS (or MONOPHTHONGS) VOWEL GLIDES  Diphthongs  Triphthongs

2.5.4 The vowels of RP

General agreement on vowels despite minute difference Unsettled issues:

 Speaker’s accent and personal preference. E.g. [є] [е] in bed and peg; [aI] or [ΛI]

 The length of a particular vowel may vary according to the context in which they occur.

E.g. vowel before a voiced consonant ﹥ vowel before a voiceless consonant bead ﹥ beat ≈ bid Tense vowel & Lax vowel

2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 2.6.1 Coarticulation

NOTE: Sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. COARTICULATION

Anticipatory coarticulation: lamp Perseverative coarticulation: map

2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions DIACRITICS

E.g. Nasalization:[a] in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is labeled as [ã] BROAD TRANSCRIPTIONS NARROW TRANSCRIPTIONS

2.7 Phonological analysis C.f. phonetics & phonology

PHONETICS: a branch of linguistics which studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received; the study of all possible speech sounds

PHONOLOGY: a branch of linguistics which studies the sound system of language; the study of the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.

PHONOLOGICAL STRUCTURE: which sound units are used and how they pattern

2.8 Phonemes and allophones 2.8.1 Minimal pairs

T or F: All the sounds cause change in the meaning of a word. C.f. tin & din

tin [tin] din [din] MIMIMAL PAIRS

PHONEME: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words E.g. /p/, /t/, /e/

2.8.2 The phoneme theory “phonème”: speech sound (Pp 57)

NOTE: Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.

2.8.3 Allophones

Phonemic transcription: / / Phonetic transcription: [ ] C.f. peak vs. speak

peak [sphi:k] speak [sp=i:k]

PHONE : individual sounds as they occur in speech. E.g. [p=], [ph] are two different phones and

variants of the phoneme /p/

ALLOPHONES (音位变体): the variants of a phoneme

COMPLMENTARY DISTRIBUTION

(1) /p/ [p=] / [s] __________ [ph] elsewhere

(Note: “[s] _________ ” is the environment I which /p/ appears.) ALLOPHONY / ALLOPHONIC VARIATION

PHONETIC SIMILARITY

FREE VARIANTS

2.9 Phonological processes 2.9.1 Assimilation Ex.

a. cap [kap] can [kãn]

b. tap [tap] tan [tãn] ASSIMILATION

REGRESSIVE ASSIMILIATION PROGRESSIVE ASSIMLIATON Ex. a. pan [ŋ] cake b. sun [ŋ] glasses

c. you can [ŋ] keep them d. he can [ŋ] go now (3) f, v; , ð; s, z; , , t, d DEVOCING Ex.

a. five past [faIvpa:st] [faIfpa:st]

b. love to [lΛvtә] [lΛftә]

2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES

(4) /v/ [f]

Voiced fricatives are transformed into voiceless fricatives before voiceless segments. voiced fricative voiceless/ ____________ voiceless

PHONOLOGICAL RULE

“/” : to specify the environment in which the change takes place Focus bar

a. Nasalization rule

[- nasal] [+ nasal]/ ___________ [+ nasal] b. Dentalization rule

[- dental] [+ dental]/ ___________ [+ dental]

c. Velarlization rule

[- velar] [+ velar]/ ___________ [+ velar]

EPENTHESIS

E.g. a. a hotel, a boy, a wagon, a white house

b. an apple, an honour, an orange curtain, an old lady

NOTE: it is the lack of a consonant that requires the nasal [n] to be added to thee article a.

(5) Ø [n] / [ә] __________ V

2.9.3 Rule ordering Ex.

a. desk [dεsk] desks [dεsks] b. box [b ks] boxes [b ksәz] -(e)s: [s], [z], [әz]

SIBILANTS

Therefore:

a. The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.

b. The /z/ appears after voiced sounds. (All vowels are voiced.) b. The /әz/ appears after sibilants.

UNDERLYING FORM / UNDERLYING REPRESENTATION (UR) SURFACE FORM / SURFACE REPRESENTATION (SR)

(6) z s / [-voice, C] ____________ (Devoicing) (7) Ø ә / sibilant ___________ z (Epenthesis) Ex.

a. //si:t + z// b. //bεd + z// c. //keIs + z//

s N/A *s Devoicing

N/A N/A N/A Epenthesis si:ts bεdz keIss Output

a. //si:t + z// b. //bεd + z// c. //keIs + z//

N/A N/A ә Devoicing

s N/A N/A Epenthesis si:ts bεdz keIsәz Output

RULE ORDERING

2.10 Distinctive features

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

E.g. voiced obstruent [+voiced], voiceless obstruent [-voiced]

[+sonorant], [- sonorant] [+ nasal], [- nasal]

2.11 Syllables

SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES LINEAR approach of phonology

NON-LINEAR approach / MULTI-LEVEL PHONOLOGY

2.11.1 The syllable structure

c.f. Chinese and English syllable structure Chinese syllable structure: CV

English: MONOSYLLABIC (with one syllable) or POLYSYLLABIC (with more than one syllables)

NUCLEUS/PEAK (核心/峰): vowel or consonant table [teibl]:[tei], [bl]

RHYME (or RIME) (韵基), ONSET (节首) NUCLEUS (核心): the vowel within the rhyme CODA (节尾): the consonant(s) after the nucleus

σ

O(nset) R(hyme)

N(cleus) Co(da)

k l a s p

English syllable: (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C) Chinese syllable: (C)V(C)

2.11.2 Sonority scale (17) Sonority scale:

Most sonorous 5 Vowels

4 Approximants 3 Nasals 2 Fricatives 1 Stops

(18) 5 *

4 *

3 2 * 1 * * k l a s p

The sonority of each sound gradually rises to a peak at the nucleus and then falls at the coda.

2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal onset principle QUESITION: How to separate polysyllables? Country [kΛntri] *[kΛ.ntri], *[kΛntr.i] *[ntri], *[ kΛntr] [kΛn.tri]

MAXIMAL ONSET PRINCIPLE: when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda

2.12 Stress

STRESS refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. ['] normal: inTEGral, forMIDable

conservative: INtegral, FORmidable PR: laBORatory, DEBris, GARage,