Birdsong
Words & Phrases
1. genes (hereditary information) and environment both have a crucial role to play
in the behavioral development of animals：基因（遗传信息）和环境在动物的行为发展中都有重要作用
crucial：adj. 重要的=critical=fundamental=essential=important 2. hand-reared chicks：一手养大的小鸟
rear：v. 养育=raise
3. They are thus able to store a memory of the sound within their brain and then
match their own output to their recollection of it when they mature. Within：prep. 在…内部=in Match…to…把…和…匹配 Recollection：n. 回忆
Mature：v. 成熟；adj. 成熟的
4. These constraints may be in their brain’s circuitry, the young bird hatching with a
rough idea of the sounds that it should copy. brain’s circuitry：大脑的回路 hatch：v. 孵化
rough idea：大致粗略的想法
5. The crude song of a bird reared in isolation gives some clues as to what this
rough idea may be
a bird reared in isolation：被孤立养大的鸟 as to：关于=about=concerning
6. In other cases the main learning period is when they set up their territories and
interact with neighbors for the first time, enabling them to match their neighbor’s songs and so countering with them.
set up their territories：成立它们的领地 counter：v. 对抗=resist
counterexample：反例；counterargument：反对观点
7. There are some species which produce normal sounds even if deaf, so that they
cannot hear their own efforts, much less copy those of others. Deaf：adj. 聋的
much less：更不用提=let alone
Syntax
1. Thus, in a number of species, it has been found that they will not copy from
recordings, but will do so from a live tutor. do so代替前文出现的copy from recordings
整句话意思是：因此，在许多物种中，发现它们不会从录音中模仿发声，但会从一个鲜活的导师那里模仿发声。
Abstract → Concrete
1. In general, however, the constraints on learning which birds have ensure that they only learn songs appropriate to the species to which they themselves belong.
Constraints这个抽象概念指的是那些具体的限制，下文是如何展开的？ 整句话的中文意思是：然而整体来看，对“学习哪些鸟叫声”的限制确保了它们只学自己所属于的物种的鸟的恰当的叫声。 ensure：v. 确保，保证
appropriate：adj. 恰当的，合适的=suitable
2. However, not all birds show the same learning pattern as do chaffinches.
下文中提到的鸟类还有什么不同于chaffinches的声音学习模式？
The Role of Diapause
Words & Phrases
1. The role of diapauses: 滞育的作用
Diapauses：n. 滞育，发育停止，间歇期
2. If conditions within an organism’s environment occasionally or regularly become
harsh, it may be advantageous for an organism to have a resistant stage built into the life cycle.
within：prep. =in, 在…内部 harsh：adj. （气候或条件）艰苦的，恶劣的Harsh climates or conditions are very difficult for people, animals, and plants to live in. a resistant stage: 一个抵抗阶段
3. with different levels of suppression of physiological activities
伴随着不同程度的生理活动的压制
4. the temperate and polar regions：温带和极地地区
5. many seeds require a period of stratification, exposure to low temperatures for
some minimum period, before they will germinate a period of stratification：层化期
exposure to low temperatures：暴露于低温 minimum period：最短的时间 germinate：v. 发芽
6. following the winter conditions rather than immediately prior to their onset
在冬天之后而不是紧挨着冬天开始之前 7. In contrast：相反，不同的是
Contrast是对比，找不同点 Compare是类比，找相同点
当然有时候不严格区分，compare也可以泛指比较 8. pose considerable problems for organisms
给生物构成大量的问题
9. the severity of the unfavorable period：不利时期的严重性
severity=seriousness严重性（考过词汇题）
10. awaits favorable conditions等着有利的条件（的到来）
11. This marsupial inhabits the deserts of central Australia：这种有袋动物居住在中
部澳大利亚的沙漠里
12. plant productivity is sufficient to support her offspring：植物生产力足以去供养
她的后代 offspring=descendant=posterity都是后代的意思（考过词汇题） 13. embryonic diapause during gestation：怀孕期间胚胎的滞育
embryonic: adj. 胚胎的；embryo：n. 胚胎 gestation：n. 怀孕，怀孕期间（了解即可）
14. the female gives birth to a tiny helpless young typical of marsupials
gives birth to：生出，产出
typical of：是…的特征，是…的典型 marsupials：有袋动物
15. crawls into the mother’s pouch and attaches to a teat
爬进妈妈的袋子并且附到乳头上 teat：n. 乳头（了解即可）
16. freeze the development of an embryo during times of drought and food shortage
冻结胚胎在干旱和食物短缺期间的发育 17. accelerated development：加快发育
18. amphibian：n. 两栖动物 reptile：爬行动物；mammal：哺乳动物
19. Adults of this species burrow deeply into the substrate where it is cooler and
perhaps more moist.
burrow：n. 洞穴；v. 挖洞 substrate：n. 基底层，底土层
sub(下面)+strate(层)=substrate(底层) stratum：n. 层，岩层 stratify：v. 使分层，层化 stratification： n. (社会)分层 moist：adj. 潮湿的
20. When it rains, the adults emerge and congregate to mate at temporary ponds.
emerge：v. 冒出，出现 congregate：v. 聚集 mate: v. 交配；n. 配偶
eg. classmate, teammate, roommate temporary ponds:临时的池塘
21. Development is greatly accelerated: the eggs hatch within 48 hours, and the
tadpoles change into toads at 16-18 days.
发育被大大加快：蛋在48小时之内孵化，并且16-18天内蝌蚪变成蟾蜍。 22. Resting stages thus comprise a series of adaptations
因此休息阶段由一系列的适应性组成 comprise: v. 包括，由…组成
Syntax 1. This genetically determined resting stage, characterized by the cessation of development and protein synthesis and suppression of the metabolic rate, is called diapause.
1）主语后面加逗号，马上反应是对主语的补充修饰，修饰结束后，返回句子主干(谓语)；2）and并列对象的确定，这两个and并列的级别不一样，最终看句子意思。
整句话顺译为：这个由基因决定的休息阶段，（以“发育和蛋白质合成”中止以及新陈代谢速率的压制为特点），被称为滞育。括号里的内容向前修饰“由基因决定的休息阶段”。
genetically determined resting stage：基因决定的休息阶段 characterized by：以…为特征
cessation of development：发育的中止 cessation：n. 停止 cease：v. 停止
protein synthesis：蛋白质的合成
suppression of the metabolic rate：新陈代谢速度的压制 2. In one case, seeds of the arctic lupine, a member of the pea family recovered from ancient lemming burrows in the Arctic, germinated in three days even though they were carbon-dated at more than 10,000 years old! 主语后面加逗号，马上反应是对主语的补充修饰，修饰结束后，返回句子主干(谓语)；所以这个句子最大的主干是“seeds of the arctic lupine germinated in three days（北极乳扇豆的种子在三天后发芽了）” In one case：在一种情况下 In case: 以防…情况出现 Arctic：adj. 北极的 Antarctic：adj. 南极的
lemming burrows：旅鼠洞，lemming（旅鼠，了解即可，不用记），burrow（洞穴）要记住
germinate：v. 发芽
germ: n. 芽， 区别：gem：宝石， gum：口香糖，树胶 carbon-dated：碳测时的
radioactive-carbon dating：放射性碳测时间的
3. The fertilized egg enters a 204-day period of embryonic diapause during which it remains in the uterus but does not attach.
介词后面+which， which指代介词前面的名词，所以“during which”中的which指前文的“a 204-day period of embryonic diapause（204天的胚胎滞育）” fertilized egg：受精卵
uterus：n. 子宫（了解即可）
attach：v. 此处指受精卵在子宫的附着/着床
Abstract → Concrete
1. Unfavorable conditions that are relatively predictable probably pose a simpler
problem for organisms than do unpredictable conditions.
可预测的不利条件，原文具体指什么？
不可预测的不利条件，原文又具体指什么？ 可预测的不利条件具体包含：季节性的冬天降温 不可预测的不利条件具体包含：沙漠地区的降水 Pose a problem: 构成一个问题
The Plow and the Horse in Medieval Europe
Words & Phrases
1. driving Europe’s slow emergence from the economic stagnation of the Middle
Ages
驱动欧洲从中世纪的经济停滞中兴起 Emergence：n. 冒出；出现；
我们更常见的一个名词是emergency（突发的紧急事件） Emerge：v. 从水中冒出，出现，崛起 反义词：immerse：v. 浸没，沉于…当中
区别：merge：v. 融合，混合，合并=combine(考过词汇题) 2. a new plow with a curved attachment to turn over soils
伴随有一个弯曲的附件去翻土的新犁
3. a shallow, straight furrow：浅的直直的犁沟
区别：burrow：n./v. 洞/挖洞
hollow：adj. 中空的，空洞的 4. mild winters：柔和的冬天
5. the ash-enriched soil yielded good crops：富含灰烬的泥土产出丰盛的庄稼 6. sustained cultural or economic life：持久的文化经济生活
7. This had the same sorts of implications that capitalization always has—it favored
the concentration of wealth and control
implications ：暗示的结果The implications of something are the things that are likely to happen as a result.=consequence（考过词汇题） capitalization：n. 资本化 capital：n. 资本
the concentration of wealth and control：财富和控制力的集中 8. had a host of implications：有很多暗示的结果
9. horses cannot be supported exclusively on hay and pasturage
马不能只靠干草和牧草供养
exclusively=solely （只，仅仅）考过词汇题 pasture：n. 牧场; v. 吃草，放牧 pasturage：n. 牧草
10. human nourishment：人类的滋养品/营养品
Syntax
1. But in the wetter terrain north and west of the Danube and the Alps, such a plow
left much to be desired.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
注意英文中的一些地道表达，“leave much to be desired”：留下很多人们想要的东西，表明没有满足/达成人们的愿望。例如 The education of China leaves much to be desired. terrain: n. 地形地势
oxen began to give way in certain parts of Western Europe to horses 固定的搭配被分隔，分隔之后后面一定会出现to的，读到“give way”就要期待后面“to”的出现
give way to = yield to 让步于…；屈服于…；被后面的…取代
Instead of the old harness used by the ancient Greeks and Romans, there appeared from Central Asia the rigid, padded horse collar. 完全倒装，真正的主语在句子最后，正常语序为：Instead of the old harness used by the ancient Greeks and Romans, there the rigid, padded horse collar appeared from Central Asia
The urban development that was to transform the European economic and social landscape after the eleventh century was propelled in large part by these new horse-centered transport capabilities
1) “be+ to do”表将来，所以原文的“that was to transform the European economic and social landscape”的意思是“都市发展将改变欧洲的经济和社会风貌”。2）主语后面有大量的修饰语，很远的地方才出现谓语，注意对谓语的期待，所以这句话的最大主干(主谓)是“The urban development was propelled”（都市发展被推动了）。
Horses require, particularly in northern climates where pasturing seasons are short, cropped food, such as oats and alfalfa.
及物动词require后面加逗号，被分隔，分隔之后，宾语终于出现 应该是“Horses require cropped food”马需要庄稼食物。
The importance of horses in a world that usually lived at the margins of sufficient diet is hard to overstate. 注意英文中的一些地道表达，“hard to overstate”：很难夸大，并没有夸大。 overstate：v. 夸大
understate：v. 有意识地少说，轻描淡写 at the margins of：处在…的边缘
整句话的意思是：马在这个“通常处在刚好够吃的边缘的”世界的重要性并没有夸大。
The increased resources that went into making the horse central to both the medieval economy and, in a separate but related development, medieval warfare, are the surest signs of the great utility the animal now assumed. 1）主谓分离，主语“The increased resources”后面被that展开修饰，在很远的地方谓语“are the surest signs”才出现；2）并列对象的寻找，both后
面预测and的出现，也就是说horse central to both…and(马既对…重要，并且也对…重要)；3)“ both…and…”中的and后面又被逗号分隔，插入“in a separate but related development”，插入结束后，才返回到both…and层面。
句子主干意思为：增加的资源投入是（马这个动物现在所承担的很大用处的）最确定无疑的标志。 对“增加的资源投入”的修饰是“that went into making the horse central to both the medieval economy and, in a separate but related development, medieval warfare,”，意思是：投入到使马“对中世纪的经济和对中世纪的战争”重要的资源。
Abstract → Concrete
1. One of the most important factors driving Europe’s slow emergence from the
economic stagnation of the Early Middle Ages (circa 500-1000 B.C.E.) was the improvement of agricultural technology. 下文具体展开的有哪些农业技术的进步？
一个是新犁(new plow)，一个是马的利用(the exploitation of horse) 你能进一步回想出新犁的特点/区别于老犁的特点，以及新犁的主要使用地区，以及由此带来的社会影响吗
你能进一步回想出能够利用马的原因吗
2. The new tool, however, imposed new demands, technical, economic, and social
新犁所施加的技术上的、经济上的、和社会上的要求分别具体指什么要求？ 原文只展开了一个经济上的要求(economic demand)
因为新犁是一个“a substantial piece of capital”大量的资本投入，所以不是所有人都能买得起，只有经济上能负担的起的人才可以
Words & Phrases
Syntax
Abstract → Concrete
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