European culture is made up of many elements, two of these elements are considered to be more enduring and they are the Greco-Roman（希腊罗马的） element and the Judeo-Christian （犹太教与基督教的）element.
Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century.
In the second half of the 4th century B. C., all Greece was brought under the rule of Alexander, king of Macedon.
In 146 B. C. the Romans conquered Greece. Revived in 1896, the Olympic Games have become the world’s foremost amateur sports competition.
Ancient Greeks considered Homer to be the author of their epics. The Homer's epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey .
The Iliad deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece, led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy. The Odyssey deals with the return of Odysseus after the Trojan war to his home, island of Ithaca.
The reprsentation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.（公民大会）
Of the many lyric poets of ancient Greece, two are still admired by readers today: Sappho and Pindar.
Sappho was considered the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece.
Pindar is best known for his odes celebrating the victories at the athletic games, such as the 14 Olympic odes.
The three great tragic dramatists of ancient Greece are Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.
Aeschylus wrote such plays as Prometheus Bound, Persians and Agamemnon.
Sophocles wrote such tragic plays as Oedipus the King（俄狄浦斯王）, Electra（伊莱克特拉(谋杀其母及其
情人者), and Antigone. Oedipus complex（恋母情结）and Electra complex(恋父情结) derived from Sophocles’ plays.
Euripides（欧里庇得斯） wrote mainly about women in such plays as Andromache, Medea, and Trojan Women.
Comedy alo flourished in the 5th century B. C. Its best writer was Aristophanes, who has left eleven plays, including Frogs, Clouds, Wasps and Birds.
Euripides _ is the first writer of \"problem plays\".
Herodotus（希罗多德） is often called “Father of History”. He wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians.
Thucydides（修西得底斯） described the war between Athens and Sparta and between Athens and Syracuse, a Greek state on the Island of Sicily.
Pythagoras（毕达哥拉斯） was a bold thinker who had the idea that all things were numbers.
Pythagoras was the founder of scientific mathematics.
Heracleitus(赫拉克利特) believed fire to the primary element of the universe, out of which everything else had arisen.
The greatest names in European philosophy are Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
In the 4th century B. C., four schools of philosophers often argued with each other, they are the Cynics（犬儒学派）, the Skeptics（怀疑论学派）, the Epicureans（伊壁鸠鲁学派）, and the Stoics（斯多葛学派）.
Euclid(欧几里得) is well-known for his Elements《几何原本》, a textbook of geometry.
To illustrate the principle of the level, Archimedes is said to have told the king: “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.”
Greek architecture can be grouped into three styles: the Doric （多利安式）style which is also called the
masculine style; the Ionic（爱奥尼亚式） style which is also called the feminine style; and a later style that is called the Corinthian（科林斯式） style.
The Acropolis at Athens（雅典卫城） and the Parthenon(万神殿) are the finest monument of Greek architecture and sculpture in more than 2000 years.
The burning of Corinth in 146 B. C. marked Roman conquest of Greece, which was then reduced to a province of the Roman Empire.
The Roman writer Horace said: “Captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive”.
In 27 B. C. Octavius（屋大维）took supreme power as emperor with the title of Augustus
The Romans enjoyed a long period of peace lasting two hundred years, a remarkable phenomenon in
history known as the Pax Romana（罗马的和平）.
In the 4th century, the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium, renamed it Constantinople (modern Istanbul ).
In 476 the last emperor of the west was deposed by the Goths(哥特人) and marked the end of the West Roman Empire.
The East Roman Empire collapsed when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453.
Virgil was the greatest of Latin poets and wrote the great epic, the Aeneid.
The Pantheon is the greatest and the best preserved Roman temple, which was built in 27 B. C. And reconstructed in the 2th century A. D..
She-wolf is the statue which illustrates the legend of creation of Roman.
“I came, I saw, I conquered.” is said by Julius Caesar.
1. Among all the religions by which people seek to worship, Christianity is by far the most influential in the West.
2. Both Judaism and Christianity originated in Palestine the hub of migration and trade routes, which led to exchange of ideas over wide areas.
3. Some 3800 years ago the ancestors of the Jews – the Hebrews（希伯来人）– wandered through the deserts of the Middle East.
4. About 1300 B.C., the Hebrews came to settle in Palestine, known as Canaan at that time, and formed small kingdoms.
5. The king of the Hebrews was handed down orally from one generation to another in the form of folktales and stories, which were recorded later in the Old Testament.
6. The Bible is a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament.
7. The old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are first five books, called Pentateuch（摩西五书）.
8. When the Hebrews left the desert and entered the mountainous Sinai, Moses climbed to the top of the mountain to receive from God message, which came to be known as the Ten Commandments.
9. Chronologically Amos is the earliest prophet in the Old Testament.
10. In Babylon in the 6th century B.C., the Hebrews, now known as Jews, formed synagogues to practise their religion.
11. At the age of 30, Jesus received the baptism at the hands of John Baptist.
12. Jesus spent most of his life in Galilee, where he apparently made a sensation. 13. Jesus of Nazareth lived in Palestine during the reign of the first Roman Emperor Augustus.
14. Jesus went with his disciples to Jerusalem for the Passover, but was betrayed by Judas.
15. In 313 the Edict of Milan(米兰敕令) was issued by Constantine I and granted religious freedom to all and made Christianity legal.
16. In 392 A.D, Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religions of the empire and outlawed all other religions.
17. After Jesus died, St. Peter and St. Paul led the disciples of Jesus to spread gospel in the Mediterranean regions.
18. By 300 A.D. each local church was called a parish（教区） and had a full time leader known as priest. 19. Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament,which tells the beginning of Christianity.
20. When as Jesus’ mother Mary was espoused to Joseph, before they came together, she was found with child of the Holy Ghost
21. Jesus went with his disciples to Jerusalem for the Passover（逾越节）, but was betrayed by Judas and caught at the Last Supper.
22. The Hebrews history was recorded in The Old Testament of the Bible.
23. The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ. 24. The story about God’s flooding to the human being and only good-virtue being saved was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, the Bible, which was known as Noah’s Ark.
25. The Birth of Jesus was recorded in Matthew(马太福音).
26. The story about Jesus being pinned in the cross to death was known as The Last Supper.
27. The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.
In European history, the thousand year period following the fall of the West Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages. Between the fifth and eleventh centuries, West Europe was the scene of frequent wars and invasions.
The Middle Age is a period in which classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritage merged.
Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding – a system of holding land in exchange for military service.
In 732 Charles Martel, a Frankish ruler gave his soldiers estates known as fiefs(封地, 采邑) as a reward for their service.
The center of medieval life under feudalism was the manor.
By the 12th century manor houses came to be called castle, which were made of stone and designed as fortress.
As a knight, he was pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to
respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.
After 1054, the Church was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox
Church.
The most important of all the leaders of Christian thought was Augustine of Hippo who lived in North Africa in the fifth century.
Under feudalism, people of western Europe were mainly divided into three classes: clergy, lords and peasants. The Pope not only ruled Rome and parts of Italy as a king, he was also the head of all Christian churches in western Europe.
One of the most important sacraments（圣礼） was Holy Communion（圣餐礼）, which was to remind people that Christ had died to redeem man.
To express their religious feelings, many people in the Middle Ages went on journeys to sacred places where early Christian leaders had lived. The most important of all was Jerusalem（耶路撒冷：巴勒斯坦著名古城)）.
With a return attack against the Moslems, the Western Christians launched a series of holy wars called the Crusades.
Charlemagne, who temporarily restored order in western and central Europe, was perhaps the most important figure of the medieval period.
Charlemagne was crowed “Emperor of the Romans” by the Pope in 800.
The Summa Theologica（《神学大全》） by St. Thomas Aquinas forms an enormous system and sums up all the knowledge of medieval theology.
Roger Bacon was one of the earliest advocates of scientific research and called for careful observation and experimentation.
“National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular(本国的) languages – that is, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages.
Beowulf is an Anglo-Sexon epic, in alliterative verse, originating from the collective efforts of oral literature.
Dante Alighieri was the greatest poet of Italy, his masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.
Chaucer was a great English poet, The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work for their power of observation, piercing irony, sense of humor and warm humanity.
The style of architecture under Romanesque art is characterized by massiveness, solidity and monumentality with all overall blocky appearance.
The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of western Europe.
Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid 17th century.
Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance. In essence, Renaissance was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars
made attempts to get rid of conservatism in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the
interests of bourgeoisie（资产阶级）, to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman Church authorities.
Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture.
Beginning from the 11th century, cities began to rise in central and north Italy.
Decameron(《十日谈》) is a collection of 100 tales told by 7 young ladies and 3 younger gentlemen on
their way to escape the Black Death of 1348. Petrarch(彼特拉克) was best known for Canzoniers（诗集）, a book of lyrical songs written in his Italian dialect.
The Renaissance artists introduced in their works scientific theories of anatomy(解剖学) and perspective(透视画法).
The four representative artists of High Renaissance in Italy are Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael and Titian.
Loenardo da Vinci’s major works: Last Supper is the most famous of religious pictures; Mona Lisa probably is the world’s most famous portrait.
Michelangelo created a style of art in which he freed himself from the old tradition of decoration on the one hand and documentary realism on the other.
Titian’s painting is acknowledged to have established oil colour on canvas as the typical medium of the pictorial tradition in western art.
In world trade, Italy had lost its supremacy because of the discovery of America in 1492 and the
rounding of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, the opening of an all-water route to India which provided a
cheaper means of transport.
Petrarch is looked up as the father of modern poetry.
Italy is regarded as the birthplace of the Renaissance.
The Reformation led by Martin Luther which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing
the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible.
Martin Luther was the German leader of the Protestant Reformation. His doctrine marked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church.
When the Pope refused to recognized Henry’s marriage with Anne Boleyn, British Parliament, in
1534, passed the Act of Supremacy（确立英皇权力高于教会的法令） which marked the formal break of the British with the Papal authorities.
Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits(天主教耶稣会会士), members of the Society of Jesus(耶稣会).
John Calvin put his theological thoughts in his Institutes of the Christian Religion（《基督教原理》）, which was considered one of the most influential theological works of all times.
The Protestant group in France was known as the Huguenots（法国胡格诺派教徒） whose rivalry with the Catholic Church led to the wars of religion from 1562 to 1598.
In 1492 the Moors（摩尔人） that had ruled Spain for four centuries were driven out from their last stronghold.
In 1492 Columbus discovered American and claimed America for Spain.
The author of Don Quixote（《堂吉诃德》） is Cervantes（塞万提斯）.
Albrecht Dürer was the leader of the Renaissance in Germany. His engravings are unsurpassed and his paintings of animals and plants are exceedingly sensitive.
Under the reign of Elizabeth I, England began to embark on the road to colonization and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday of capitalist development.
Thomas More was a great humanist during the Renaissance. Among his writings the best known is
Utopia. Cervantes crowned literature of Spain and Shakespeare of England during the Renaissance.
The Renaissance was the golden age of geographical discoveries: by the year of 1600 the surface of the known earth was doubled.
Columbus was a Genoese-born navigator and discoverer of the New World.
Dias was a Portuguese navigator who discovered the Cape of Good Hope.
Vasco da Gama（达伽马） was a Portuguese navigator, who discovered the route to India round the Cape of Good Hope between the year of 1497 and 1498.
Amerigo Vespucci（韦斯普奇） was the Italian navigator in whose honor America was named
Amerigo Vespucci discovered and explored the mouth of the Amazon（亚马逊河） and accepted South
America as a new continent.
Copernicus（哥白尼） came to be known as father of modern astronomy.
During his life time Leonardo da Vinci dissected more than thirty corpse and was a great anatomist in Italy.
Andreas Vesalius was the founder of modern medicine.
Vesalius was a Flemish anatomist. His work Fabrica（《人体结构》） marked the beginning of a new era in the study of anatomy（解剖学）.
Machiavelli（马基雅弗利）was called “Father of political science” in the West.（政治学之父）
The Reformation shattered Medieval Church’s stifling（沉闷的；令人窒息的）control over man, thus paving the way for capitalism.
1. The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement originating in France, which attracted
widespread support among the ruling and intellectual classes of Europe and North America in the second half of the 18th century. 2. The Enlightenment is sometimes called the Age of Reason because it characterizes the efforts by
certain European writers to use critical reason to free minds from prejudice, unexamined authority and oppression by Church or State.
The most important forerunners of the Enlightenment were two 17th century Englishmen John Locke（洛克） and Isaac Newton.
The major force of the Enlightenment was the French philosophers. Among them were such well-known men of letters as Montesquieu（孟德斯鸠）, Voltaire and Rousseau. Diederot, who edited the famous encyclopedia, was also an important French Enlightenment figure.
In art and literature, what coincided with the Age of Reason was a period called neo-classicism.
In American, The American War of Independence of 1776 ended British colonial rule over that country.
The seizure of Bastille(攻占巴士底狱) marked the end of the French monarchy, and the First French Republic was born in 1792.
The Industrial Revolution (1760-1840), beginning with the invention of the steam engine, rapidly changed the face of the world, and ushered in a completely new age.
Montesquieu’s doctrines of the separation of powers became one of the most important principles of the U.S. constitution.
In The Origin of Human Inequality, Rousseau argues that the social order of civilized society introduce inequality and unhappiness. This social order rests upon private property.
Besides Hobbes and Locke, Rousseau is also famous for his theory of social contract. In Elements of Physiology, Diderot developed his materialist philosophy and fore-shadowed the doctrine of evolutions as later proposed by Charles Darwin.
Montesquieu is the first of the great French men of letters associated with the Enlightenment.
Pope represented the rationalistic neoclassical tendency in literature and has often been called the spokesman in verse of the Age of Reason..
In A Modest Proposal, Swift bitterly criticizes the British Government by suggesting that the children
be fatten and eaten. This essay has been regarded by many as the most savage single piece of ironical satire ever written.
Richardson, novelist, is often called the founder of the English domestic novel. His type of novel is called the epistolary novel(书信体小说).
Fielding, novelist, dramatist and essayist, was called by Sir Walter Scott the “Father of the English novel”.
Johnson was the editor of A Dictionary of the English Language (1747-1755), the first great English dictionary.
In 18th-century England, two writers must be mentioned as far as the periodical essay is concerned: Addison and Steele.
Both Addison and Steele contributed to The Tatler and The Spectator, two series of periodical essays.
Gulliver’s Travels is Swift’s best work, a social and political prose satire, in the form of a book of travels.
The author of The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe is Daniel Defoe, novelist and political journalist.
Lessing was the first German dramatist of lasting importance and the most brilliant representative of
the German Enlightenment.
Goethe was the greatest of all German poets and the outstanding figure of world literature since the Renaissance.
In Faust, Goethe draws on an immense variety of cultural materials. It is not only his own masterpiece but the greatest work of German literature.
Schiller was a founder of modern German literature. He and his contemporary Goethe are the chief representatives of German classicism.
Kant was the key figure of the German classical philosophy and called “Waterhead of modern
philosophy”. He exerted an immense influence on the intellectual movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.
During the reign of Luis XIV (1638—1715) and Louis XV (1710—1714) in France, an artistic style became prevalent which was known as Rococo.
Watteau and Boucher were the representative French painters of Rococo style.
The two major musicians of the Musical Enlightenment were Bach and Handel.
The Baroque Period was followed by the Classical Period, roughly between 1750 and 1820. The two major musicians of the Classical Period were Haydn and Mozart.
During the second half of the 18th century, instrumental music was the primary mode of expression after centuries of subordination to vocal music.
Of the three great composer of the Viennese school, Beethoven occupied a pivotal position, learning in much of his work towards the Romantic Movement in music.
The author of The Marriage of Figaro was Mozart who produced a vast output almost in every form of composition.
The famous German composer, Schumann said: “Music owes as much to Bach as Christianity does to its Founder.”.
Rococo style in art is usually associated with architecture and interior decoration. Kant’s three most important critiques are: Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, and Critique of judgment.
The three best-known composers of the Viennese school are Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. 1. Romanticism was a movement in literature, philosophy, music and art which developed in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
2. Romanticism started from the ideas of Rousseau in France and from the Storm and Stress Movement in Germany.
3. The Enlightenment brought about two revolutions and they caused Romanticism to rise. The two revolutions are the French Revolution and the Industrial revolution.
4. The slogan of French revolution was liberty, equality and universal brotherhood.
5. The literary and philosophical trend in the Romantic philosophy was represented by
Transcendentalism (超验主义).
6. The publication of Mickiewicz’s Ballads and Romances is usually taken as the beginning of Romanticism in Polish literature.
7. In 1798, a volume of poems was published in London under the title Lyrical Ballads, which contained the poems of two young men called the “Lakers”.
8. Lyrical Ballads marked the beginning of the Romantic literature.
9. The Lake poets were Wordsworth and Coleridge.
10. “If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?” was written in Ode to the West Wind by Shelly.
11. Shelly wrote a Lyrical drama Prometheus Unbound which is a parody written by Aeschylus.
12. “Beauty is truth, truth beauty.” was written in Ode on a Grecian Urn by Keats.
13. Victor Hugo was a best representative writer of Romanticism in France.
14. Don Juan is generally considered Byron’s masterpiece.
15. To the conservative and reactionary forces in society, Byron was a Satan and they called his poetry “Satanic”.
16. Goethe’s novel The Sorrows of Young Werther played an enormous role in the spread of Romantic sentiment among the young.
17. The famous economist Adam Smith put forward his new economic ideas in his book The Wealth of Nations which laid the theoretical groundwork for Capitalism.
18. The theoretical groundwork for capitalism was Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations.
19. Leopardi (莱奥帕尔迪,1798-1837, 意大利作家) was perhaps the greatest contribution Italy could make for European Romanticism.
20. Pushkin stood in the van of the Romantic movement in Russia. In Eugene Onegin, he created a character, Onegin, who was the first “superfluous man (多余人)”in Russian literature.
21. A short Romantic flowering took place in Poland around 1820’s. The greatest writer that emerged was Adam Mickiewicz.
22. Goya witnessed the revolts of the Spanish people against Napoleon Bonaparte and recorded them in two important canvases: The Second of May and The Execution of the Third of May.
23. Delacroix was the foremost painter of the Romantic Movement in France and his influence as a colorist is inestimably great.
24. The most important contributions to the musical world by Beethoven were in those musical forms associated with the growth of the sonata (奏鸣曲).
25. Swan Lake was composed by Tchaikovsky (柴可夫斯基).
26. There was in the late 18th century and early 19th century a movement of revival in architecture.
The Houses of Parliament in London were the largest monument of the Greek revival; the Brandenburg
Gate in Berlin had some very distinct features of the Greek Doric style and Opera House in Paris is a
typical example of the revival of the Baroque style.
27. The Romantic Movement in music, which dominated the period about 1830 to about 1900 was not an isolated phenomenon.
28. Schubert, Chopin, Schumann, and Mendelssohn were among the early Romantics, with Beethoven as their forerunner.
29. Schubert was the first great figure in the history of the German Lied (art song), a combination of poetry and music.
30. The later Romantics in music in the middle 19th century were Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, Verdi, Brahms,and Tchaikovsky.
31. Brahms had been called a cerebral composer and his music was considered abstruse and difficult, even dull.
32. Brahms belongs with Bach and Beethoven in the mighty triumvirate (三人小组) of the “Three B’s”.
33. David was a French painter who led the neo-classical movement in painting in the late 18th and early 19th century and had the work Death of Marat. 1. In Europe, the realist movement arose in the 50s of the 19th century and had its origin in France.
2. In art and literature the term realism is used to identify a literary movement in Europe and the Unites States in the last half of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century.
3. Balzac is particularly celebrated for his monumental The Human Comedy inspired by that of Dante’s Divine Comedy.
4. An inspiration to many realistic writers, Flaubert is often called the first French realist and a model not only to French authors but to Americans and Russians as well.
5. Flaubert’s Madame Bovary (《包法利夫人》) with its unrelenting objectivity (无情的现实) and detachment(冷漠) marks the beginning of a new era literature.
6. Zola was the founder of the naturalist school and “A slice of life” was his motto.
7. Zola defined the theory of naturalism and illustrated it in his great work entitled Les Rougen-Macquarts.
8. It was not until the eighteenth century, when Peter the Great carried through the reforms that Russians really came into contact with the literature of Western Europe.
9. Gogol was the first master of fiction in Russia to leave romantic conventions and go to life for his subjects.
10. Turgenev was the first Russian author to gain recognition in the west.
11. Dostoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment is another study of criminal psychology. It is the most popular of his novels.
12. Dostoyevsky regarded The Brothers Karamazov as his masterpiece which was never completed.
13. Apart from his literary work, Tolstoy holds an important position in his own country’s cultural
history as an ethical philosopher and religious reformer.
14. Chichikov is the chief character in Gogol’s famous novel Dead Soul, which is full of humorous sympathy with plain people and satirical contempt for sham and hypocrisy.
15. Ibsen’s masterpiece A Doll’s House is a plea for the emancipation of women.
16. Ibsen’s work is sharply critical of the hypocrisy and seamy politics of Norwegian provincial life.
17. Strindberg’s first significant play was Master Olaf which is considered Sweden’s first great drama.
18. The period of realism in English literature corresponds roughly to the latter half of the reign of Queen Victoria.
19. Charles Dickens’ best book is David Copperfield, a kind of autobiographical romance, in which his power over our everyday emotion is unrivalled.
20. George Eliot’s masterpiece Middle March is regarded by some critics as the finest English novel of the 19th century.
21. Everywhere in Thomas Hardy’s novels human beings appear to be crushed by a superior force, a pitiless fate and the indifference of his fellow creatures. 22. Bernard Shaw was a member of the Fabian Society whose aim was to make a transition from capitalism to socialism without violence.
23. The Civil War has been called the Great Divide of American history. Between 1870 and 1890 the
population in the U.S. doubled. That began what Mark Twain called the Gilded Age: an age of excess and extremes, of decline and progress, of poverty and dazzling wealth, of gloom and hope.
24. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin was acclaimed the greatest of all anti-slavery manifestoes.
25. Considered by many to be the greatest of all American poets, Whitman celebrated the freedom and dignity of the individual and sang the praises of democracy and the brotherhood of man.
26. Whitman’s best known poem was When Lilac Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d, which expresses his grief over the death of Lincoln.
27. Mark Twain is justly called “the Lincoln of American literature”. His novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a master of human, characterization and realism, has been considered the first modern
American novel.
28. Over a 37-year period, Whitman published nine separate editions of his masterpiece Leaves of Grass.
29. In Millet’s painting there was not the kind of brutality and vulgarity one finds in Courbet because Millet was completely outside the circle of politics.
30. The chief characteristics of the impressionist style were first seen in Monet’s landscapes in
which the forms are broken by loose brushstrokes and the colors of objects are reflected into other objects throughout the painting.
31. Manet was regarded as the leader of the impressionist movement. To him, reality was not a world of solid objects but of sensation of light and color in changing and fleeting patterns.
32. Monet was the French painter who developed the technique of broken-color painting.
33. French painters who originally allied themselves with the impressionist found that impressionism
lacked form and structure. They began to seek new ways of expression and became post –impressionists.
34. Sunflower, a subject that is repeated in Vincent van Gogh’s paintings to express his vision of an ideal world.
35. Paul Gauguin was a French post-impressionist who had great influence on modern painters in their use of pure and strong colours. 36. The man who led sculpture into the realm of Art for Art’s Sake was Auguste Rodin, the first sculptor of genius since Bernini in Renaissance Italy.
37. Grieg was a nationalist Norwegian composer. Her had earned the nickname of “Chopin of the North”.
38. French composer Debussy has been described as the founder of modern musical impressionism.
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