高等教育ssci论文

Towardssustainableinternationalisationofhighereducation

RoumianaIlieva•KumariBeck•BonnieWaterstone

Publishedonline:29March2014

ÓSpringerScience+BusinessMediaDordrecht2014

AbstractThisarticleengageswiththequestion:whatdoestheinternationalisationofhighereducationintimesofglobalisationsustainandwhatshoulditsustain?Wefirstconsider,throughliteratureonglobalisationandStier’s(GlobSocEduc2(1):1–28,2004)work,limitationsofcurrentlyprevalentperspectivesoninternationalisationineconomicterms.Wethenofferabriefreviewofhowsustainabilityisunderstoodinhighereducationandarticulateourownnotionofeducationalsustainability.Wefleshitoutinreferencetodatareflectingideasandactivitiesconstitutiveofdailypracticesofinternationalisationinonefacultyofeducation.Wecontendthatoursustainabilityframeofreferencecanexpandopportunitiestothinkcriticallyaboutinternationalisationand,moreimportantly,offersopportunitiestoseeinternationalisationinitscomplexity,andtore-thinkandreorderpracticesthatarenotinalignmentwitheducationalgoalsandvalues.

KeywordsInternationalisationofhighereducationÁEducationalsustainabilityÁGlobalisationandhighereducationÁSustainableinternationalisation

Introduction

Universitiesacrosstheglobeareparticipatingmoreandmoreintheglobal/localflowsofpeople,research,andcapital,inflectedbymarketrelationsthatrankknowledgeandstatusintheincreasinglycompetitive‘‘edubusiness’’(Luke2010)ofhighereducationintimesofglobalisation.InCanada,nationalstudiesmaintainarhetoricof‘‘strongacademicratio-nales’’(AUCC2007,5),suchasdevelopinginterculturalcompetenciesandglobalciti-zenship,asgoverninginternationalisationinCanadianhighereducationinstitutions,whilegovernmentpoliciesviewinternationaleducationasakeydriverineconomicdevelopment(DFAITReport2012).Inreviewingthecritiqueofeconomicinternationalisation,

R.Ilieva(&)ÁK.BeckÁB.Waterstone

FacultyofEducation,SimonFraserUniversity,8888UniversityDrive,Burnaby,BCV5A1S6,Canadae-mail:rilieva@sfu.ca

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particularlyinCanada,werealisedthattherehasbeennosystematicworkwithinFacultiesofEducationinrelationtothesustainabilityofinternationalisationanditseducationalecologiesofpractice.Wehadanopportunitytoexploreandtheoriseconnectionsbetweeninternationalisationandsustainabilityinaresearchprojectthatundertooktoconceptualisesustainabilityineducationalterms(deCastelletal.2011).Thispaperrepresentsoneaspectofourexploratorystudyon‘sustainableinternationalisation.’

Sustainableeducationalecologies(SEE)wasaresearchinitiativebasedinafacultyofeducationataWesternCanadianuniversitythatsoughttodevelop,research,andbuildtheoreticalandpracticalmeasuresrelatedtotheconceptofeducationalsustainability.AsassertedbydeCastelletal.(2011),‘‘Mostsignificantbyitsomissionin…‘‘environ-mental’’and‘‘sustainability’’inventoriesisanyseriousattentiontotheeducationalecol-ogiesthatmustbesustainedfortherealizationofworthwhilelearningoutcomes’’(2).Thus,membersoftheSEEresearchteamwereinterestedingoingbeyondpopularunderstandingsofsustainabilityasconservation,resourcemanagement,andenvironmentaleducationtowardsaframeworkthatwouldallowustoconsiderthesustainabilityofeducationaldomains(deCastelletal.2011).Thisframeworkattemptedtoaddresstheneedforasustainabilityanalysisoftheideasandactivitiesconstitutiveofdailyinstitu-tionalpracticesofteaching,learning,programandcurriculumdevelopment.Forthispurpose,sixteamsinvestigatedthefollowingthemes:SustainableInternationalisation,LearninginDepth,PlantsandPeople,EducationalDeliverySystems,Place-basedPeda-gogy,andLearningEnvironmentsResearch.We,theauthors,setouttodevelopanapproachthatcouldassesstheeducationalsustainabilityofinternationalisationinrelationtoitshuman,institutional,andeducationalcostsandbenefits.Ourinterestwasinbringingtheexperiencesofparticipantsintheinternationalisationprocess,i.e.faculty,staff,stu-dents,andadministrators,toguideusinfleshingoutthenotionofsustainableinternationalisation.

Ifweapplythecommonsenserulesofenvironmentalsustainabilityandenergycon-sumptiontointernationaleducation,byeverydefinitioninternationaleducationisunsus-tainableintermsoftheacademicmobility(andenergyconsumption)itpromotes.Andif,asweshallarguebelow,internationalisationislargelyadoptedasameasuretosupporttheeconomicsustainabilityoftheinstitution,weareleftwithaverylimitednotionofsus-tainabilityandarathergloomypictureofinternationalisation.Wethusasked,whatisinternationalisationsustainingandwhy,andwhatshouldinternationalisationsustain?Whatcouldviewinginternationalisationthroughasustainabilityperspectivecontributetounderstandingpracticesandpoliciesthatguideinternationalisation?

Thispaperprovidessomeofthehighlightsofourinvestigationtoanswersomeofthesequestions.Wewillfirstconsiderbriefly,throughsomeglobalisationliterature,thelimi-tationsofaddressinginternationalisationpredominantlyineconomicterms.Wenextgiveabriefreviewofhowsustainabilityisunderstood,specificallyinhighereducation,primarilyasareferencepointtothenarticulateourownnotionofsustainabilityinrelationtoeducationalpracticesininternationalisationasourfocusisnotoneducationforsustainabledevelopment.WedrawonStier’s(2004)critiqueofideologiesdrivinginternationalisationinordertoassesscurrentinternationalisationprocessesandpractices.Wecontendthatoursustainabilityframeofreferencecanexpandopportunitiestothinkcriticallyaboutinter-nationalisationand,moreimportantly,offersopportunitiestoseeinternationalisationinitscomplexity,andtore-thinkandre-orderpracticesthatarenotinalignmentwitheduca-tionalgoalsandvalues.WewillillustratetheuseofthissustainabilitylenswithdatafromthestudycarriedoutaspartoftheSEEproject.

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Internationalisationofhighereducation:theproblemofthemarket

Theinternationalisationofhighereducationisconsideredtobearesponseto,andevenaproductof,globalisation(AltbachandKnight2007;BhandariandBlumenthal2011;Knight2008;Montgomery2010)resultinginanintensificationoftheglobal/localflowsofpeople,ideas,andcapitalinhighereducationinstitutions,particularlyinwealthiercoun-tries.InternationalisationhasbecomeakeyinstitutionalstrategyforCanadianuniversities(AssociationofUniversitiesandCollegesofCanada2007)seekingtobrandandpositionthemselvesinacompetitivemarket.Thegrowthoftransnationalproductioncharacteristicofeconomicglobalisationhasprecipitatedintensificationofthelinkagesbetweenthepurposesofeconomicglobalisation(‘themarket’)andhighereducation,supportingtheargumentthattheeconomicdimensionsofglobalisationareleavingtheirmarkonedu-¨yrinen-cation(e.g.Bartell2003;BurbulesandTorres2000;EdwardsandUsher2000;Ha

AlestaloandPeltola2006;Knight2011;Marginson2004,2006;Montgomery2010;RizviandLingard2000;Smith2006;UnterhalterandCarpentier2010).Manyofthescholarsabovehavearguedthatuniversitiesarebecomingmorecorporateandlesscollegial,moreconsumerandmarketorientedandthathighereducationisbecomingmorealignedwithservingeconomicglobalisationratherthansubvertingorcounteringitsmoreharmfulimpacts.Thispredominantfocusontheeconomicsustainabilityofhighereducationalinstitutions,oftenhiddenbehindtherhetoricofmaintainingandevenencouragingaca-demicandeducationalgoalsandpurposes,hasled,inourview,tosomeunintendedconsequencessuchaslimitedattentiontothevaluesoflearningandteachingininterna-tionalandinterculturalcontexts(Beck2009;Becketal.2007).Hence,ourrationaleforemployingsustainabilityasanorganisingprincipleemergesfromourobservationsofcurrentpracticesofinternationalisationthathavemoretodowiththecommodificationofeducationthanwithethicalprinciplesandeducationalvalues.Wenowturntothenotionofsustainability.

Whatdoessustainabilitymean?

Theterm‘‘sustainability’’commonlyreferstoenvironmental,social,andeconomicsus-tainabledevelopmentfirstdefinedintheBrundtlandReportoftheWorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment(1983)notablywithethicalcommitmentstoequitybeingpartofthenotionfromthebeginning.IntheBrundtlandReportsustainabledevelopmentcanbeseenasatwo-prongedeffortthatseekstopreserveorimprovethenaturalenvi-ronment,andatthesametimeprovidemeanstoimprovetheconditionsofthesociallyandeconomicallydisadvantagedintheworld.Anassumptionwithinsuchaconceptualisationisthepreservationorrenewalofasetofresourcesonwhichsocialandeconomicdevel-opmentrests.Afurtherassumptionisthatsustainabilitymustbeunderstoodasadevel-opmentalprocess.Manytheoreticalformulationsandapplicationsofsustainabilityhavebeendevelopedsincewithdifferentemphases(Gibson2001).Indigenouspeopleshavearguedforculturaldiversityasthefourthpillarofsustainabledevelopment,andtheinextricablelinkbetweenbiologicalandculturaldiversities(Batesetal.2009).Theirphilosophiesarebasedonrespectfulhumanandenvironmentalinteractionsandtheestablishmentofmutuallybeneficialandreciprocalrelationships.Similarly,thereisagrowingtrendamongresearcherstoconsidersustainabilityasacontinuingprocessthatrequiresrecognitionofcontext,histories,andrelationalelements,ratherthanasasetgoaltobeachieved(Faberetal.2005;Wals2012).Wealignourselvestothisnotionof

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sustainabilityasaprocessthatischaracterisedbyacomplexwebofrelationshipsininterdependentanddynamicinteractions.

Morerecently,ineducation,withtheUNidentifyingtheperiod2005–2014astheUNDecadeforEducationforsustainabledevelopment(ESD),ESDhassought‘‘toenablecitizensaroundtheglobetodealwiththecomplexities,controversiesandinequitiesarisingfromissuesrelevanttotheenvironment,naturalheritage,culture,societyandeconomy’’(Wals2012,12).ESDaimstointegratevalues,activities,andprinciplesinherentlylinkedtoSDinallformsofeducationandhelprealizeachangeinattitudesandbehaviourstoensureamoresustainablefutureinsocial,environmental,andeconomicterms(Wals2012,10).Giventhatthefocusofourtheorisingisnotoneducationandlearningwithinthecontextofsustainabledevelopment,butratheronwhattheinternationalisationofhighereducationshouldsustaingiventheonslaughtofeconomicglobalisationoninstitutionsofhighereducation,wehaveonlyborrowedfromcertainperspectivesaroundsustainability(especiallythefocusonrelationalaspectsofsustainability)anddonotclaimtoengagewithallaspectsinherentintheconceptofsustainabledevelopment(i.e.,environment,society,andeconomics).Weseektounderstandhowsustainabilitycanbeconceptualisedineducationaltermsasacontributiontowardsaprincipledinternationalisationofhighereducation.

Sustainabilityandhighereducation

WalsandJickling(2002),whodiscusssustainabilityspecificallyinthecontextofhighereducation,reiteratethatthetermisoftenproblematicinthatithasmultiplemeanings.Morerecently,Wals’(2012)reportontheUNDecadeofESDhighlightscurrentdevel-opmentsinhighereducationinrelationtoESD.Walsobservesthatmoreuniversitiesengageinthechallengetoreorientteaching,learning,andresearchactivitiestodevelopnewmentalmodelsandcompetencies,whichcouldcontributetosustainableliving(48).AtthesametimeWalsnotesthatwithinhighereducationthereisatendencytohighlightorprioritisecertainpillarsofSDwithoutdulyexploringtheinfluencesandrelationshipsamongtheenvironment,economy,andsociety.Asmentioned,however,ESDisnotthefocusofourattention,butratherthenotionofsustainabilityitself.

Withreferencetoresearchonsustainableeducation,whichweunderstandasrelatedto,butdifferentfromeducationforsustainability,facultiesofeducationhavetendedtofocusonteacher-studentratios,physicalenvironment,andthequalityofteachereducation.Muchofthisresearchhasbeenconductedthroughmeasuringstudentachievement(vanderWendeandWesterheijden2001citedinNilsonetal.2011)andattentiontothesocialfactorsofsustainabilityineducationismorerecent.Morespecifically,thereseemstobelittlesustainabilityresearchthatfocusesontheexperiencesofthosewholearn,teach,andworkineducationalenvironmentsand‘‘[a]ttemptstoprivilegetheelementof‘sustainablerelationships’atanindividuallevel…arefew’’(deCastelletal.2011,5).AsSackney(2007)asserts,‘‘Wecannolongeroperatefromamechanisticmodelwherestudentsareviewedasdeficits.Instead,weneedtoviewtheeducationalsystemfundamentallyasanecologicalplaceofandforconnections,relationships,reciprocity,andmutuality’’(citedinNilson,PatersonandMenzies2011,2).Howweapproach‘‘sustainability’’

Ourapproachisverymuchalignedtoscholarshipthatfavours‘people’factors,ortheprimacyofrelationshipsandmutualityasbeingcentraltoanunderstandingof

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sustainabilityinsettingsofteachingandlearning.Thus,aswillbeelaborateduponinthissection,ecologicalprinciplesofinterconnectednessanddynamicinteractionswhichinvolvetherecognitionofpowerrelationsanddiverseunderstandingsamongstudents,faculty,andstaffepitomisetheapproachtowardssustainableinternationalisationinhighereducationthatwecallforinthisexploration.

Asmentioned,sustainabilityhasforlongbeenunderstoodasmaintainingpracticesandprocessesthatshouldbesustained.However,ourapproachdoesnotassumethatinter-nationalisation,particularlyasrationalisedbyeconomicorpoliticalimperatives,isanecessarygoodthatmustbesustained.AccordingtoWalsandJickling(2002)sustain-abilitycanbeviewedinmultipleways:asadynamicconcept,asanormative,ethicalandmoralimperative,andasaheuristic.Weuseitasaheuristicsinceourfocusisnotonwhateducationforsustainabledevelopmententails,butratheronhowviewinginternationali-sationthroughaprismofsustainabilitycanenlightenusinunderstandingpracticesanddirectionsofinternationalisation.TwoaspectsofWalsandJackling’sviewsonsustain-abilitywithineducationalcontextsareespeciallypertinenttoourconceptualisationofthetermhere:namely,thatsustainabilityrequiresafoundationalappreciationofholisticprinciplesandrespectfordifferences.Tofurthertheorisesustainabilityineducationalrelationshipswithininternationalisation,werefertoliteraturefromtherecentproliferationofecologicalperspectivesinlanguageeducation,especiallyintheworkofKramsch(2002),MacPherson(2011)andvanLier(2004).Kramsch(2002)discussestheimportanceofrelationalityinlanguagelearningcontexts.Shetakesanecologicalapproachtoedu-cationbecausesuchanapproachunderscoresthe‘‘complex,nonlinearandrelational’’(10)characterofeducation.Relationality,sheargues,involvesinterrelationshipsamonghier-archicalorganizationallevels,fromindividualstoprofessionalcommunitiesandinstitu-tionalstructures.Weadopthernotionofrelationalityaswebelieveitisausefulconceptuallenstoseethecomplexnatureofinternationalisation,involvingdifferentagentsinedu-cationenmeshedinaninterconnectedinterdependent,sociocultural,political,andglob-alisingcontext.

MacPherson(2011)discussestheimpactofeducationonbio-linguisticandculturalsustainability,andarguesthat

publicdiscourseisdominatedbythequestionofmaterialneedsandtechnologicalsolutions.Whatareoverlookedarethedeepinterconnectionsbetweenhumanmaterialandculturallifeandthecorrespondingcrisisposedtothesurvivaloflan-guagesandcultures,includingknowledge,waysoflife,andrelationships(6).Herwork,drawingonindigenousunderstandingsofsustainability,supportsthedevelop-mentofoursustainabilitylens.

vanLier(2004)discussesecologyasthefieldthatexamines‘‘thetotalityofrelation-shipsofanorganismwithallotherorganismswithwhichitcomesincontact’’(3)andisinterestedintherelationsofpossibilityaffordedbyanenvironmenttoapersonintunewithit.Usefulforourworkishisdistinctionbetweenshallowanddeepecology:shallowecologyreferstoattemptsto‘‘fix’’anenvironmentunderstresswhereasdeepecologyaddsacriticalperspective,asenseofvision,andanovertideologyoftransformation.vanLiersuggeststhatacriticalperspective‘‘requiresaconstantevaluationofwhatisactuallyhappening…withwhatwethink(inlinewithourprinciples,moralvaluesandsoon)shouldbehappening’’(6).Thisguidesusinparticularinwhatwediscussbrieflybelowasunsustainablepracticesofinternationalisation,andexpandonelsewhere(Becketal.2011).Notionsofpowercometotheforewithinthisperspectiveandcriticalecologyinvolvesadvocacyforsustainingdiverseknowledgesforfuturegenerations.

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Analysesofpoweranddiversity/differenceasdiscussedinpostcolonialthoughtalsoinformourwork.Bhabha(1990,1994)arguesthatthereisasuperficialcelebrationofdiversityinthecontextofmulticulturalsocieties,whereculturaldifferencesareonlyunderstoodinrelationtodominantframeworks,thusreinstatingthem.Bhabhaobservesacreationofculturaldiversityatthesametimeascontainmentofculturaldifferences.Assuch,hisworkallowsustounderstandhowthegoalsofinternationalisation,whichsup-posedlyvaluethecreationofdiversity,mightbeunderminedbywaysinwhichthatdiversityiscontained.

Drawingonthescholarshipoutlinedabove,weusetheterm‘sustainability’inourresearchtodenotepossibilitiesforcomplexholisticinterconnectionsandrelationsbetweenstudents,teachers,andcurriculumwithinwhichpowerrelationsarerecognisedanddif-ferencevalued.Whenandifrealised,theseholisticinterconnectionsrepresentadialogicrelationalitybetweenvariouslysituatedactorsandeducationalresourceswithinagivensetting.Thesustainabilitylensthatweproposeforanalysinginternationalisationinhighereducationespousesanecologicalperspectiveontheconceptofsustainabilitythatdrawsattentiontotheactualexperiencesofhumanbeingsinvolvedininternationalisation,thecomplexrelationsandpotentialmutualeffectstheymayhaveoneachother,aswellasthedynamicnatureofalltheseprocessesandinteractions.Ideologiesofinternationalisation

Stier’s(2004)frameworkforcritiquingtheideologiesthatcurrentlyunderpininterna-tionalisationinhighereducationisusefulforrevealingsomeoftheserelationships,includingissuesofpowerandequity.Stier(2004)identifiesthreeideologicalassumptionsbehindtheinternationalisationofeducation,namely:idealism,instrumentalismandedu-cationalism.Idealismreferstothenotionthatinternationalisationis‘‘goodperse’’(88,emphasisauthor’s)andthattheoutcomeofinternationalisationofeducationwillneces-sarilybeamoredemocraticandequitableworld.Stier(2004)problematisestheuncon-ditionalanduncriticalacceptanceofinternationalisationofeducationasinherentlygood.Anothercritiqueofidealismisanethnocentricviewwhereinternationalisationofeduca-tionisgoodonlyaccordingtothenormsandstandardsofwealthynations.Instrumentalismchampionstheperspectivethateducationisameanstowardsotherends.Someoftheseendsincludeenrichingthelabourforceandconsolidatingtheeconomicprowessofacountry,andmaximisingrevenueforeducationalinstitutions.Withregardstoinstru-mentalism,Stierwarnsthatitmayresultinexploitativebehaviourfromthewealthiercountriesthatattractstaffandstudentsfromthelesswealthycountriesfortheirownfinancialbenefitsandtheeconomicsustainabilityoftheirowneducationalinstitutions.Lastly,educationalismpromotesinternationalisationofeducationforthepurposeofdeeperlearningandhumandevelopment.Educationalismispresentedasthemostequitableidealforinternationalisationbutshouldnotbeendorseduncritically.Stiercautionsthatinpracticeeducationalismmayresultin‘‘academicentrism’’where‘‘our’’waysofteachingandlearningareviewedassuperiorandwealthynationsasinabetterpositiontooffersolutionsofstructuralandglobalproblemsattheexpenseoflessdevelopedcountries.DespiteStier’scritiquesofideologiesofinternationalisation,however,theassumptionthatinternationalisationmustgoonisnotquestioned.Ultimately,theoutcomeofthisposition,weargue,tendstoresultinaone-size-fits-allmodelofhighereducationthatpotentiallylevelsculturaldiversityandunderminesstudentlearningandfacultyengage-ment.Ifinternationalisationistogoon,thequestionweaddresshereiswhyshoulditgoon,andhowcanitgoon?Weattempttoengagethesequestionsbydevelopingand

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applyinganeducationalsustainabilitylenstotheinternationalisationofhighereducationasexperiencedbyfaculty,students,andstaffintheirdailyactivitiesinonefacultyofedu-cation.Stier’sworkhelpsclarifyhowinternationalisationiscurrentlyapproachedinhighereducationinwealthycountries.Combiningthiscritiquewithanecologicalunderstandingofsustainabilityallowsustohighlightwhatinternationalisationofhighereducationcouldandshouldbeincontrasttowhatitisoverwhelminglyatpresent.

Movingtowardssustainableinternationalisation:anillustration

Asnotedabove,wewillattempttoillustratehowtheviewofsustainabilitydiscussedhereaslinkedtoacasestudythatfocusesontheeverydayexperiencesofthoseinvolvedininternationalisationcouldadvanceustheoreticallyinarguingforwhatisworthsustainingininternationalisationactivities.Abriefnoteonmethodology

ThesettingforthisstudywasaWesternCanadianuniversitythathasbeenactivelyinvolvedininternationalactivitiesforthepastnineteenyears,andisexplicitlyinterna-tionallyorientedinitsidentity.Withinthefacultythatwasstudied,internationaleducationisakeyprogramareathatoffersvariouseducationalopportunitiesfordomesticandinternationalstudentsinundergraduateandgraduateprograms,preandin-serviceteachereducationprograms.

Thisstudyusedacombinationoftwomethods:anonlinesurvey,includingforcedchoice(check-list,yes/no,ranking,andLikertscale)questions,aswellasopen-endedquestions,andsemi-structuredqualitativeinterviews,toexploreinternationalisationwithinthefaculty.Surveyparticipantsincluded125students(representing5%ofstudentsenrolled),34facultymembers(42%ofthefaculty),11staffmembers(19%ofstaff),andoneadministrator(13%).Amongthe13interviewparticipants,thereweresevenstudents(fourgraduateandthreeundergraduate),fourfacultymembersandtwostaffmembers.Wefirstrevisedandre-administeredaninstrumentusedbytheAssociationofUni-versitiesandCollegesofCanada(AUCC)tosurveythestatusofinternationalisationofhighereducationinCanada.GiventhefactthatthefindingsofAUCCstudieshavebeeninfluentialinjustifyingsupportforinternationalisationactivitiesandclaimsinCanadianhighereducationinstitutions,wewantedtohaveapointofcomparisonandreferencetoourowninstitution.Weexpandedtheparticipantpopulationfromadministratorstoincludestudents,faculty,andstaff.Wesoughttocollectdataonparticipants’perceptionsandexperiencesrelatingtothemeaningofinternationalisation,rationalesandoutcomesofinternationalisation,andteachingandlearning.Inourqualitativeinterviews,wecoveredtopicssuchascurriculum,pedagogy,personal/socialoutcomes,decision-making,partici-pationininternationalactivities,valueofcredentialsandsoon.

Analysisofthesurveydatawasdescriptiveinnature,involvingthecalculationoffrequenciesandpercentages.Qualitativedatafromthesurveywereorganisedaccordingtothematiccategoriesandfrequencieswerecalculated.Commonthemes,aswellasuniqueandinsightfulresponseswereidentified.Interviewdata,subsequenttomemberchecking,werecodedaccordingtoemergentthemes,aswellastogenerativeanduniqueinsights.Informedbytheserichandvarieddatasets,wediscussbelowsomeofourfindings,astheyhelpusfleshouttheconceptofsustainableinternationalisationandilluminatetheusefulnessofconsideringinternationalisationthroughtheprismofeducational

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sustainability.RelyingonStier’sanalysisofideologiesdrivingandenactedininterna-tionalisation,wefirstdiscussbrieflythemainthemesofwhatwecallunsustainablepracticesreportedbyparticipants[elaborateduponelsewhere(Becketal.2011)],whoidentifiedharmfulimpactsoftheinternationalisationofeducationthatweremoreinser-viceofeconomicglobalisation.Wethenturntothepracticesthatleadtomoreeducationalsustainability,asdefinedabove.Themesofunsustainability

Behindtheinstitutionalrhetoricofacademicrationalesforinternationalisation,ourpar-ticipantsidentifiedaspectsofinternationalisationthatunderminededucationalpurposes.DrawingonStier’saccountofideologiesofinternationalisationandusingthelensofeducationalsustainability,wewereabletomakemorevisiblethoseaspectsthatcontrib-utedtounsustainablepractices.Wecategorisethesepracticesintothreemainthemes:commercialisation,lackofawarenessorunderstandingofinternationalisation,andcon-tainmentofdiversity.

Thefirsttheme,commercialisation,waslinkedtotheapparentcouplingofinterna-tionalisationpracticeswithwhatStiercallseconomic/instrumentalrationalesthatleadtothemarketisationofeducationalactivitiesandpractices.Thesurveydataappearedtoconfirmparticipants’preferenceforanacademicrationaleforinternationalisation.Forexample,over65%ofsurveyedfacultyendorsedasaprimaryrationaleforinternation-alisationthepreparationofgraduateswhoare‘‘internationallyknowledgeableandinter-culturallysensitive’’.Yet,17%offacultyassociatedtheterm‘‘internationalisation’’withproducingincomefortheinstitution.Moreover,participants’commentsfromthesurveyraisedaseriouschallengetowhethertheidealofdevelopinginterculturalandinternationalcompetencewasbeingrealised.Facultymemberscharacterisedinternationalisationprac-ticesas‘‘veryuni-directional’’,where‘‘marketingisapriority’’togetherwith‘‘gettingbumsonseats.’’Onecommentreferredtoastudyabroadprogramthatseemedtobe‘‘mistakingculturalexperienceimmersion’’withakindof‘‘educationaltourism’’(Survey,Faculty).Therewereexplicitcommentsacrossparticipants’surveysdirectlycritiquingwhatsomesawasirrefutableevidenceofacorporatisinguniversityasinthisexamplefromastudentsurvey:‘‘tome,‘internationalizationofeducation’meanstheglobalizationofapubliclyfundededucationalinstitution….It…means‘asubstantialsourceofrevenue’forourincreasinglyprivatizeduniversitysystem’’.

Thesecondthemethatemergedwasalackofawarenessandunderstandingofprocessesandpracticesofinternationaleducationamongmanystudents,faculty,andstaff.Forexample,32%offaculty,46%ofstudentsand17%ofstaffdidnotprovidearesponseastowhatinternationalisationofeducationmeanstothemandmanystudyparticipantswhosharedtheirunderstandingqualifieditwithcommentslike‘‘Iamnotsure’’,‘‘soundslike’’,‘‘it’saguess’’,etc.Thislackofunderstandingwascoupledwiththeblindacceptanceofinternationalisationasavaluableeducationalcurrencytobeperpetuatedorsustained(orwhatStierwouldtermidealisticideologyofinternationalisationasinherentlygood)as96%ofsurveyedfacultyand82%ofstudentswereoftheopinionthattheirfacultyofeducationshouldendorseinternationalisationinitspoliciesandplans.

Thethirdsetofproblematicpracticeswewereabletodiscernreferredtothecon-tainmentofdifference,thepossibleerosionofculturaldiversity,andtheinequitablerelationsofpowerthatseemedtobeoperatingwithinthecontextofinternationalisation,reminiscentofStier’sconceptualisationofacademicentrismineducationalismasevidentintheironiccommentofafacultymember:‘‘Weknowbest…getonboard.Youknow

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nothing…getonboard’’.Findingsindicatedthat,ratherthansupportingdiverseknowl-edgesandtraditionswithinprogramsandcourses,toooftenthefocusremainedonNorthAmericancontent.Internationalstudentsweremarginalisedandtheirknowledgesde-valued;forexample,afacultymembercommented:‘‘Wejustnevermakeuseoftheresourcesthose[international]studentsbring’’.Participantsspokeofhowthelearningcontextremainedmonolingualandmono-cultural,andthosewithEnglishasanadditionallanguagefacedstigmatisation.Inaddition,studentmobilityandexchangeprogramsfordomesticstudentsdidnotalwaysresultinincreasedculturalunderstanding,butrather,insomecases,inareinforcementofstereotypesandover-simplified,essentialistviewsofcultures.

Allthesethemesspeaktoareductionist,unidirectionalandbinaryfocusinpracticesofinternationalisationandthusweperceivethemasunsustainable.Theyserveasabackdropforourdiscussioninthenextsectionofwhatweperceiveaspracticesininternationali-sationwhichcouldguideusinansweringthequestion:whatshouldtheinternationalisationofhighereducationsustain?

Sustainabilitythemes:relationsofpossibilityinexistinganddesiredpractices

AsdiscussedaboveinconnectiontoStier’stheorising,thesustainabilitylensthatweemployedmadevisiblesomeoftheharmfulandunsustainableinternationalisationprac-ticesinthefaculty,theonesthat,inourview,shouldnotbeallowedtogoon.Moreimportantly,asdiscussedbelow,ourdatarevealedaswellpossibilitiesininternationali-sationpracticesthatcouldbeconsideredsustainableinreferencetoteaching,learning,orcurriculum.

Oursustainabilityperspective,drawingonvanLier’s(2004)insistenceonengagingincriticalecologicalwork,requiresthatweaskthefollowingquestioninordertocountertheharmsimposedbyunsustainablepractices:What‘‘relationsofpossibility’’oraffordancesarecurrentlybeingenactedandwhataffordancesshouldbethereinpracticesofinterna-tionalisationinthiscontext?

‘‘Relationsofpossibility’’directustothinkaboutpositionality,relationality,andsalientdiscoursesinpracticesofinternationalisation.Whileavailablepossibilitiesarelimitedbyconditionsofspace/place/history,theyarenotforeclosed.Attendingtorupturesandgaps,liminalspacesandunsettlingmomentswithindominantdiscoursesopensupdirectionsandoptionsforunforeseen,generativetrajectoriesintosustainablepracticesofinternationali-sation.Wewilldiscusssomecurrentaffordancesinpocketsofactivitiesaswellaswhatsomeofourstudyparticipantssharedastheirhopesandvisionsforafutureofinterna-tionalisationthatcouldbetermedsustainable.Thesepointtointangiblebutvaluedbenefitsinhumanrelationsandinterconnections,andthematerialeffectsofcertainpractices,viewpoints,andattitudesontheserelationships.Theyservetoillustratetheimportanceofviewinginternationalisationthroughasustainabilitylens.Keepingeducationalsustain-abilityasourfocus,twomainthemesemergingthroughourprismseemtosummarisetherelationsofpossibilityinourdataasaspectsofwhatshouldgoonininternationalisation:valuingdiversityandmutuality/reciprocity.Valuingdiversity

Staff,studentsandfacultymentionedinstanceswhendiverseknowledgeswerevalued,inclassrooms,andinprogramdesignandcurriculum.Weseetheseasusefulsignpoststoguideusinthedirectionofeducationalsustainabilityininternationalisation.

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Onepocketofactivitywasidentifiedinauniqueprogramdesignedtoprepareinter-nationallyeducatedteachersforcertificationasteachersinBritishColumbia.StudentsattendingthisprogramarerecentimmigrantstoCanadawithampleexperienceteachingelsewhere.Astaffpersonnotedhowinstructorsmodifytheircurriculuminacknowl-edgementofthediverseexperiencesthestudentsbring,andinanattempttosupportthesestudents:

Thepeoplethatareworkingwith[theinternationallyeducatedteachers]reallytrytounderstandtheirstudents…Ithinkourfacultygetsahugeamountofcreditfor…saying,‘‘No,wearenotgoingtodothecookiecutterthing‘causethisisn’twork-ing.’’(Interview,Staff1)

Thetransformationoftheteachereducationcurriculumresultingfromthisengagementofdifferentagentsenmeshedinaninterdependenteducationalendeavourcanbeseenasanexampleofvaluingtheresourcesinternationalstudentsbringandopeninguptodiversitywhilenegotiatingcurriculumwithmoreattentiontoglobal/localinteractions.Suchanapproachcountersinstrumentalistandeducationalistideologiesofdoinginternationalisation.

Anotherexampleofvaluingdiversityisevidentinafacultymember’ssuggestionforcreativewaystoacknowledgethemultilingualresourcesthatdiversestudentsbringintoourclassroomsillustratingtheagencyofinstructorsincreatingaffordancesforviewing‘‘diversityasknowledge’’(MacPherson2011,12,italicsinoriginal).

EverytimeIteach…theundergraduatecourse[aboutESL]…[Iwouldsay],‘‘Whatarethelinguisticresourcesinthisclassroom?’’I…do…the5minofalanguagelesson…sothattheyseeclassmatesasknowing[forexample]Mandarin.(Interview,Faculty4)

Thisvaluingofdiverseknowledgeswasalsoreflectedinastudent’sappreciationofengaginginacademicsettingswiththediverseexperiencesthatinternationalstudentsbringtotheinstitution:

[InmyPhDcourse]therewasastudentfromJordan…Itwassointerestinghearingherperspective…shehadverydifferentphilosophies…itmakesitmuchmoreheterogeneousandbenefitstheuniversity.(Interview,Student7)

Asustainabilitylensallowedustoseeinstancespointingtowhatneedstobetakenintoconsiderationincurriculumandinstructionalpractices.Severalquotesofferpracticalexamplesofhowtoincorporatediverseknowledgeorexperiencesindailyeducationalactivitiesandthusengageinholisticinterconnections(Kramsch2002)intheinterna-tionaliseduniversity.Someexamplesare‘‘acknowledg[ing]ourstudents’internationalbackgroundingeneralandinfusingtheteachingwithavarietyofteachingmethodsthatarenot…traditionalwithintheCanadianeducationalsystem’’(Interview,Staff2),or‘‘modifyingyourcurriculumsothat…thescholarshipoftheworldisavailabletostudents[andwhere]oneveryreadinglistineverycourseinthe[faculty]there[are]non-Western/Europeanauthors’’(Interview,Faculty4).Theseexamplesspeaktohowcurrentlypre-valentideologiesofinternationalisationcanbesubvertedindailypractices.

Ourcasestudyillustratesaswellthatequallyimportantavenuesforreducingapossibledisconnectbetweenteachers,students,andthecurriculumwouldbetothinkoutsidethebox,tobecreativeinengagingincollaborativecurriculumwithstudentsfromdiversebackgrounds,aswellastobecaring,assuggestedbelow:

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Ihaven’tdonethis,butIwouldreallyliketo…[try]togetmultilingualstudentstolookineducationalliteratureintheirownlanguageandbringthattoclass.(Inter-view,Faculty4)

Ithink…takingcareoftheinternationalstudentslocallysohavingenoughresource[s]forthem…is…important.(Interview,Student2)

Inotherwords,thiscasestudyoffersexamplesofhowasustainabilitylenscanbeusedandisusefulfornoticingcurriculum/pedagogy.Itsuggestsavisionofsustainabilitythatentailsadialogicrelationalitybetweenstudents,teachers,andcurriculum(Kramsch2002),aswellasknowledge-buildingthatreflectsrespectforandattendancetocomplexandholisticglobal/localinteractionsandinterconnections(vanLier2004).

Anotherexampleofwhatthevaluingofdiversityentailsreferstoexpandingknowledgeofdifferenteducationaltraditions.Morespecifically,ofparticularsignificanceinourrelationscouldbetheconsciousefforttoexpandourknowledgeof‘‘theOther’’(Bhabha1994),asattestedinthefollowingquote:‘‘WehavealltheseChinesestudentsgothroughourgraduateprogramsandisthereanyincreasedunderstandingofConfucianideasabouteducationintheFacultygenerally?No.’’(Interview,Faculty4).Suchknowledgeexpan-sioncanbefruitfulincounteringpotentialacademicentrisminourpracticeswhereWesternideasdominateextensivelythecurriculum.

Theexamplesaboveoftheactualsubjectiveexperiencesofinternationalisationofstudents,staff,andfacultyhighlightrelationshipsandpowerdynamicsthattheyhavebeenenmeshedin,aswellasthepossibilitiesthatasustainabilityframeofreferenceopensupforrecognisingtheenormousbenefitsofvaluingdiversitywithincontextsofinternationalisation.Reciprocity/mutuality

Insightsinourdatacouldbeveryhelpfulinleadingthewaytowardsamoreholisticandthussustainableapproachtointernationalisationincontrasttoitsblindacceptance.Often,visionsforintercultural/internationaleducationinthewordsofourstudyparticipantsarebasedonprinciplesofmutuality,inclusiveness,reciprocity,and/ormindfulness—directlyresistingorcounteringaninstrumentalrationale(Stier2004)andpotentiallyinequitablepowerrelations.Surveycommentsandinterviewdataspoketothesevisions:[Internationalisation]shouldbedonedifferentlythanthemoney-grabitseemstobe.IhavearecurringnightmarethatweinstitutionalizeprocedureswherebywesendastreamofprivilegedWhitementoAsia,Africa,andtheMiddleEast.Iwouldlikeforour[faculty]tochallengeexistingparadigmsofinternationalisation—developcre-ativeandtransgressivestrategiesthatbenefitallstudentsandfacultyinvolved(e.g.athostandvisitinginstitutions)aswellasthelocalcommunitiesinwhichtheseexchangesoccur.(Survey,Faculty)

[Internationalisationis]moreaboutrespectthanmoney…Itmustbeagenuinedesireonthepartofallofustolearnaboutourselvesandourneighboursandtowidenourperspectives.(Interview,Student7)

Thus,ourdatademonstratedpowerful,evenifnotverycommon,examplesofawarenessoftheneedformutualengagementthatisrespectfulandcollaborative.Suchawarenessisausefulsignpostinmovingbeyondeconomicimperativestowardsequitablereciprocalrelationsininternationalisationactivities.Onefacultymemberspoketotheimportanceof

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notimposingcurriculumorpedagogywithinaprojectinSouthEastAsia,butrather‘‘allowingpeopleindifferentculturestocommunicateandlearnfromeachotherinalowpressureenvironment—[which]willfoster…moresustainablechangesinbeliefsaboutbesteducationalpractice’’(Survey,Faculty).

DiscussingacollaborativeprojectwithanAfricanuniversity,astudentshowedappreciationthat

[I]twasn’taone-way[interaction]wheretheycameheretogatherexpertisefromus,buttheybroughtexpertise.Ithinkthatitiscriticalthatweneedtorespecttheknowledgeandskillsthatothercountriesandotherculturesbringtothepicture.(Interview,Student7)

Thishighlightstheimportanceofperceivinginternationalisationasapartnershipandnotaone-wayflowofexpertise.Similarly,anundergraduatestudentparticipatinginafieldschool

…feltveryhumbled[inThailand].Ihadneverbeeninternationalbeforesoitwasfantastic…notnecessarilytogoandlike‘Oh,Ihavesomethingtogiveyou.’Itwasjustalearningexperience.(Interview,Student6).

Asevidencedabove,subvertingwhatseemtohavebecomenaturalisedrelationsofpower,authority,andexpertisebetweentheWestandtherestoftheworldguidethethoughtsandactionsofsomemembersofthisfaculty.Suchactions,representingthepotentialofdynamicrelationsofpower,existinoppositiontothe‘‘academicentrism’’thatStier(2004)discusseswhichofteninvolves‘‘educatedandenlightenedpeople’’fromtheWestoffering‘solutions’tothe‘problems’of‘lessdeveloped’countries.Allthesequotesspeaktopossibilitiesthatmaygobeyondcontainmentofculturaldifference(Bhabha1990)incontextsofinternationalisation.

Basedonourdataofsubjectiveexperiencesofinternationalisationweseetheabilitytolistenwithreciprocityinmindasanimportantfirststeptowardscounteringunequalpowerrelationsintheinternationaliseduniversity:

Thebiggestportionofteachingisallaboutlistening,respecting,appreciatingandprovidingopportunity….AndIthinkwithinternationalworkitisverymuchlikethat.Wehavetobestill,quiet,listen,watch,absorb,andthenfindtheanswerforwhatwouldactuallybeproductiveintermsofwhatwehavetooffer.(Interview,Faculty1)

Asthefacultymemberacknowledgesabove,itisnecessarytobestillandabsorbasafirststepasweengageininternationalworkforittobemeaningfulandproductive.Likewise,asanotherfacultymemberpointsout,attendingtothetotalityofrelationshipswedevelopandsustainisessentialininternationalwork.

Amoreethicalapproach[tointernationalisation]wouldbehowmuchofalong-termrelationshipareweinvestedin?…[And]beingresponsivetotheneedsthatarethere[inthelocalcommunity]…[Y]oureallyneedtopayattentiontothebasisofourrelationships…Thereisareciprocitythatneedstooccur…Ifwevalueinterna-tionalisation…[weneedto]hearinwaysthatreflectaconsciousnessandnotjustaslogan.(Interview,Faculty2)

Reciprocity,asenvisionedhere,entailsrespectandresponsibilityfortheotherinattemptingtounderstandhistoriesandlocalcontextsandstrivingforequitablepowerdynamics.

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Overall,itseemsthatrespectfullyacknowledgingtheotherandmutualityarepowerfulstrategiestoenactaneducationallysustainableinternationalisation.Asthesedatasuggest,analysingexperiencesofinternationalisationthroughasustainabilitylensallowsonetobegintopinpointaspectsofwhataneducationalsystemaimingtobe‘‘anecologicalplaceofandforconnections,relationships,reciprocity,andmutuality’’(Sackneyqtd.inNilsonetal.2011,2)mightentail.

Concludingremarks

Thedatadiscussedaboveillustratesomewaysinwhichtheinternationalisationofhighereducationcouldbesustainableinnature.Wesuggestthatviewinginternationalisationthroughaneducationalsustainabilitylensoffersexpandedwaysofunderstanding(1)relations,(2)discourses,and(3)currentcontextsofhighereducationinglobaltimes.Thedataalsoshowwaystorecognizeandcountercurrentideologiesdrivinginternationali-sationidentifiedbyStier(2004):blindacceptanceofinternationalisation,economicimperativesforinternationalisation,the‘benign’ideologyof‘educationalism’.

Inlinewithaneducationalsustainabilityposition,thiscasestudyillustratedrelationsofpossibilitiesthatspeaktotheimportanceofmutualityandrelationalityinvaluingdiversity.Morespecifically,relationalitywithininternationalisationneedstobecreative/non-linear/non-reductionistic/dialogicalbyinvitingreciprocity,allowingdiversitytoemerge,givingvoicetodifferentperspectives,andengagingmeaningfullywithboth‘‘hereandthere’’throughattentivelistening.Onlythencanadeepecologicalstance,entailingtransforma-tionofpowerrelations,becomearealpossibility.

Whenitisatitsmostpowerful,internationalworkcanenhanceallofusindifferentways…weeachbringourstrengthstothatcollaborativetablebut…becauseourpolitical/social/culturalcontextsaresounique,thethingswedrawonandgainfromthoserelationshipsarealwaysamplifiedinwaysthatareunpredictable.(Interview,Faculty2)

Theabovequotefromafacultymemberspeakseloquentlyabouttheunpredictablegainsofinternationalisationifitispracticeddialogicallyandethically.Thiskindofsustainableinternationalisationiswhatweshouldbeaimingforbecause,

Wehaveamoralobligation…asaneducationalinstitutionandasanacademicandscholarlyspace,tomodelthekindofcollaborative…andcreativethinkingthatcanhelpusdealwithsomeoftheissuesthatareofrelevancetotheworldbeyondourownsphere.(Interview,Faculty2)

Oneofourmoralobligationsistobevigilanttowardssustainingthediversityofhumanlifeonourplanet.AsMacPherson(2011)warnsus,culturalandlinguisticdiversity‘‘areofevolutionaryandecologicalsignificance’’(9)andthusitisimportantforhighereducationinthiseraofglobalisationtoengageininternationalisationactivitiesthatdonotreducetheworldtoamarketplace,butratherengageheadonwiththe‘‘massivediversitycollapsecurrentlyunderway’’(245).

Asustainabilityperspectiveoffersanentrypointtoandidentificationofactionsthatneedtobetakeninordertomovetowardsamoreethicalinternationalisationwithinuniversitiesandpointstotheneedtoemphasisetheroleofresearchinguidinginterna-tionalisation.Onequestionthatwesuggestneedstoguideinternationalisationactivitiesis:whatisitthatisbeingsustainedwhenweinternationalisehighereducation?

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Inadditiontointerrogatinghowinternationalisationisunderstood,itisimportanttoexpandineducationalsettingsontheorising‘sustainability’ofeducationalactivitiesandnotonlyeducationforsustainability.Assuggestedinthisarticle,weviewecologicalperspectivesasespeciallyvaluableindrawingattentiontothe‘‘complex,nonlinearandrelational’’character(Kramsch2002,10)ofeducation.Inaddition,theyemphasisethedynamicinteractionofcontextsandpeopleinwayssimilartotheinterplay‘‘betweenpartsofalivingorganism’’(3)andtakeintoaccountthetotalityofrelationshipsalearnerentersintowithallaspectsofhis/herenvironment.Thus,ecologicalperspectivesoffera‘relationalwayofseeing’enablingustoaccountforphenomenathatmightotherwisegounnoticedinsituationsofteachingandlearning.Viewedthroughthislens,individuals,professionalcommunities,andlargerinstitutionsinvolvedinprocessesandpracticesofinternationalisationareallpartsofalivingorganismintertwinedinsocio-cultural,economicandpoliticalrelationsaffectedbyglobalisation.Enactmentsofin-ternationalisationmustbeviewedthroughanethicalandmorallens(WalsandJickling2002)withanawarenessofthepowerrelationsinwhichinternationalandinterculturalrelationsareenmeshed.Yetweneedtobeconstantlymindfulthat‘‘itiseasiertoidentifyunsustainableactivitiesthantoimagineandprescribethosedeemedsustainable.Whatissustainableemergeswithliving’’(MacPherson2011,262).Weofferthiseducationalsustainabilitylensasatoolforthinkingabouthowtofosterdynamic,ethicalpracticesofinternationalisationinwhichallparticipantscanflourish.Sustainability,aslinkedtoecologicalframesofreference,providesanopportunitytoexploreinterna-tionalisationholisticallyinitscomplexity(Kramsch2002;vanLier2004)andwithasenseofrespectforandprotectionofdiversityasafundamentalstapletosustainlife(MacPherson2011).

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